Building learner-centered educational experiences in virtual reality

Abstract

Virtual Reality (VR), with its immersive and interactive qualities, is increasingly recognized for its potential to transform education. Unlocking this transformative potential requires the principled design and sustainable adoption of Virtual Reality Learning Environments (VRLEs), ensuring they achieve their pedagogical goals and reach and empower diverse learners at scale. From a design perspective, there is a noticeable gap in the availability of principles, guidelines or frameworks tailored specifically for 3D immersive learning environments. Although the Human–Computer Interaction (HCI) literature offers a rich body of design principles for 2D multimedia learning environments, directly applying these to VR is impractical without thorough investigation, given the unique affordances. Beyond design-related gaps, current research on VRLEs also largely relies on ad hoc, one-off interventions, which underscores the need for systematic approaches that enable sustained adoption and integration into mainstream pedagogy. Therefore, situated at the intersection of HCI, VR, and pedagogy, this dissertation advances the field by addressing the critical challenge of designing effective VRLEs while charting pathways for sustained adoption within mainstream education. Through a combination of empirical evaluations, an integration-focused study, and a comprehensive literature synthesis, this work provides evidence-based insights and frameworks that guide both the design and long-term incorporation of VR in education. As part of this work, empirical studies investigate two core design elements of VRLEs, verbal and spatial representations of learning content, to derive implications for effective design in immersive educational contexts. In parallel, it undertakes an exploration of students’ perceptions, challenges, and barriers related to the sustained use of VRLEs aligned to their curriculum. The dissertation further incorporates a literature-based scoping exercise to identify key design parameters that influence learning effectiveness, in the form of a design space. The findings demonstrate that VR design parameters meaningfully influence cognitive load and user experiences, and that the effectiveness of specific design choices varies across instructional contexts. In addition, by drawing on theoretical frameworks such as Self- Determination Theory, the dissertation outlines key considerations and best practices for integrating and sustaining VR into regular curricula. Furthermore, the identified design space, together with the empirical studies, illustrates how this space can be systematically leveraged to structure investigations that, in turn, inform the development of evidence- based design guidelines for VR learning environments. Building on these insights, the dissertation therefore proposes a foundational frame- work to guide the development of design principles and practical recommendations for VRLEs. In doing so, the thesis aims to contribute to bridging the gap between theory and practice, enhancing learning experiences, and advancing the integration of immersive technologies in educational settings.